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The fifth chapter is theoretical
[englishtext]
The sixth chapter:
Fricatives and affricates
Production of fricatives and affricates:
Fricatives:
They are consonants with the characteristic that, when they are produced, air escapes through a small passage and makes a hissing sound.
They are continuant consonants , which means that you can continue making them without interruption as long as you have enough air in your lungs.
Affricates:
They begin as plosives and end as fricatives provided that the plosive and the following fricative must be made with the same articulators.
To use a technical term , the plosive and fricative must be homorganic.
The fricatives of English:
Each place of articulation have a pair of phonemes, one fortis and one lenis.
The fortis fricatives are said to be articulated with greater force than the lenis , and their friction noise is louder.
The lenis fricatives have very little or no voicing in initial and final positions , but may be voiced when they occur between voiced sounds.
f , v : they are labiodentals which means that the lower lip is in contact with the upper teeth.
Eg: 'fan' , 'van' , 'safer' , 'saver' , 'half ' , 'halve' .
They are dental which means that the tongue is placed between the teeth.
Eg: 'thumb' , 'thus' , 'ether' , 'father' , 'breath' , 'breathe'.
s , z : they are alveolar which means that the tongue blade is pressed against the alveolar ridge.
Eg: 'sip' , 'zip' , 'facing' , 'phasing' , 'rice' , 'rise'.
,
They are post-alveolar which means that the tongue is in contact with an area slightly further back than that for s,z.
Eg: 'ship' , 'Russia' , 'measure' , 'Irish' , 'garage'.
All fricatives described so far can be found in initial, medial, and final positions except whose distribution is much more limited.
h : eg: 'head' , 'ahead' , 'playhouse'.
The affricates:
,
They are the only two affricate phonemes in English.
It is fortis "voiceless" , the place of articulation is post-alveolar , and the lips are rounded.
It is lenis "voiced" , the place of articulation is post-alveolar , and the lips are rounded.
In
the t component has a place of articulation rather further back in the mouth than the t plosive usually has.
When it is final in the syllable, it has the effect of shortening a preceding vowel, as do other fortis consonants.
The jasmine… [/englishtext]
_________________ ***Keep your aim always in sight***
ربّنا لا تؤاخذنا إن نسينا أو أخطأنا
ربّنا و لا تحمِل علينا إصراً كما حملته على الذين من قبلنا
ربّنا و لا تحمِّلنا ما لا طاقة لنا به و اعفُ عنّا و اغفر لنا و ارحمنا
فانصرنا على القوم الكافرين
ربّي اغفر لي و لوالديّ و للمؤمنين و المؤمنات أجمعين
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